Week 04 Commentary
What do you need to know about interviewing individuals or groups?
Deciding whom to interview is a key step. Examine your research questions and decide who might be able to help you answer them or who might be able to direct you to other informed people. Stringer (1996) identifies an important caveat:
Researchers sometimes feel disconcerted when people fail to engage in projects that the researcher considers to be very significant. They are often surprised when obstacles appear without warning, when people fail to attend meetings, when tasks are not performed, or antagonism is directed toward them. In many such instances, they have not only transgressed the boundaries of people’s symbolic territory, but failed to obtain ‘permission’ to enter that territory.
An important preliminary task…is to determine the formal structure of relevant organizations. Researchers need to identify and communicate with people in positions of influence and authority and gain their permission to work there…. They also need, at the same time, to locate informal patterns of influence to ensure that all significant people- sometimes called opinion leaders or gatekeepers-are included in the early stages of the research process. (p. 51)
Be cognizant of the above when you wish to interview an individual or a group and make sure you “smooth the way” by getting approval from gatekeepers or other key people.
Interviews allow people to describe their situations and to provide a record of their views and opinions (Stringer, 1996). If you choose to interview people (or to conduct a focus group), Stringer suggests that you: 1) identify yourself, your role and your purpose; 2) ask permission to talk with people and to record the interview or to take notes if that’s what you wish to do; and 3) arrange a time that is convenient (p. 63). You should also assure people of confidentiality, or not, as the situation warrants, and make sure you are in agreement on the issue of confidentiality.
Depending on your questions, you may want to provide questions to interviewees or groups ahead of time so they can think about their answers. Needless to say, the questions you choose to ask are very important both in terms of the information you will collect and the wise use of your time and that of your respondents.
Stringer (1996) suggests different types of questions:
Grand tour questions. These are broad and general types of questions that encourage people to describe a situation from their own perspective.
Can you tell me about your experience with….?
Can you tell me about your work with X group?
Can you show me how you do that?
Can you describe the situation from your point of view? Can you describe a typical day?
Can you tell me what happened at that conference?
Guided tour questions and prompts. Stringer writes that grand tour questions allow you to pull together a core of information that you can expand through guided tour questions and prompts. Guided tour questions help respondents to focus and visualize their experience:
Can you describe the layout for me?
Could you show me around?
Can you draw me a map?
What did you observe when…?
A prompt question might be:
Can you tell me more about what happened when….?
Can you give me an example of that?
Choose each question carefully for interviews (the same goes for focus groups and surveys). Only ask a question if you know why you are asking it and what you will do with the information you receive. Once you have your list of questions ready, test it out with a friend or two to see if the meaning of your questions is clear. You may want to refine questions before conducting your “official” interviews or focus group.
While advance preparation is important, remember that your questions may also evolve and become more refined as you interview people. Flexibility is called for if an interview takes on an interesting or thought-provoking direction.
When conducting the interview or focus group listen closely and try to avoid shaping your respondents’ opinions. Try to stay neutral and to ask “neutral” questions. For example, ask: “What is your opinion about how X handled the recent situation?” instead of asking, “What is your opinion about X’s responsibility for the recent fiasco?”
It’s good to end an interview by asking: is there anything else you would like to tell me about this topic? Is there anything else you think I need to know about this topic? This is an excellent, open-ended way of obtaining information that you may not have targeted in your original questions. Be sure to thank your respondent or group for their input. You may want to ask them if they would like to see a copy of your final research paper.
Finally, be mindful of the ethics involved in interviewing and surveying. If you have agreements about confidentiality, stick to them. If you have agreements with your respondents about how and where their information will be presented, stick to them. Be respectful of the opinions and time of your respondents.
Stringer, E. (1998). Action research: A handbook for practitioners. Sage publications.
Using surveys to gather data
Creating a survey that will produce meaningful results is often more difficult than it seems. Surveys must contain the right questions in order for high-quality, usable information to be generated. Designing surveys is both an art and a science. It is an art because surveys are based on language and it is difficult to make language precise when meanings can vary from one audience to another. It is a science because rules can be applied to the formation of questions for generating accurate information.
Surveys will give you a picture of what many people think or report doing. When you clearly establish what needs to be known and why, creating well-targeted questions becomes easier.
Questions should ask for precise answers, as well as be unambiguous and concise. Avoid double questions, double negatives and leading questions. (An example of a double question is: In your opinion, should the Department of Defense allocate more money for health benefits for retired soldiers, or more money for initial training? An example of a double negative
question is: Shouldn’t the local population refuse to cooperate? An example of a leading question is: Do you agree that informed individuals are against this measure?)
When deciding survey layout and sequence, make sure questions and answer choices are clear and neat. Try not to overfill a page,
which might make the survey seem long and deter respondents. Also, aim for a logical sequence so that questions flow better.
The eight-item checklist below is a useful guide in developing clear, relevant questions.
1. How is this question relevant to the objectives of this paper?
2. Do respondents have the knowledge, opinions or experience assumed?
3. Is there a standard question used by other surveyors?
4. Is the vocabulary appropriate?
5. Does the question make grammatical sense?
6. Is there a single, clear focus?
7. Does the response fit the question?
8. How exactly will the answers be used?
Source: Gray, G. and Guppy, N. (1994). Successful surveys. Toronto: Harcourt Brace.
Surveys can be delivered in many ways e.g., face-to-face interviews, paper and pencil questionnaires, online, etc. There is an excellent survey tutorial that addresses a range of topics in clear and simple language. Topics include research methods, flow chart, time and cost considerations, qualities of a good question and question wording, anonymity and confidentiality, among others. Tips for Designing a Survey Questionnaire by Richard Krueger is also an excellent resource.
The thought and attention you devote to developing a useful survey will have a positive influence on the information you generate and thus on your overall paper. Remember: quality in, quality out!
There are many online resources available for learning about surveys. Some of these sites charge fees and some do not. Even the sites that charge fees provide introductory information that might be useful to you. Be sure to check out the tutorials identified above.